Method

The sample of this study consists of a total of 637 teachers, 441 of whom are Spanish and 196 Uruguayan. The percentages of women and men in both countries are similar: 72.0% and 70.7% women and 27.0% and 29.3% men in Uruguay and Spain, respectively. These data are representative of the most recent teacher censuses conducted in those countries. The age distribution is also similar. The highest percentage corresponds to teachers between 44 and 53 years of age (39.8% in Spain and 32.8% in Uruguay), followed by those in the 34-43 age range (27.2% in Uruguay and 23.5% in Spain). Regarding years in the profession, most have more than 20 years of teaching experience, with a higher percentage in Uruguay (53.1%) than in Spain (37.8%). These teachers work at different levels of the educational system, with a distribution that in this case differs in each country. In Uruguay, the highest percentage corresponds to university teachers (26.7%), followed by those at the upper-secondary level (22.6%) and the primary level (16.9%). In Spain, the main percentages of respondents teach at the primary (32.3%), secondary (31.2%), or technical upper-secondary (9.2%) levels.

Through the questionnaire, we collected information about the participants and the digital social networks they use by means of a series of open and closed questions (frequency of use, length of use, prominent profiles they follow, purpose of using digital social networks). The same questionnaire was used in both countries. A first set of five items gathers information on sex, age, years in teaching, educational level, and type of institution in which they teach. Second, a set of items related to the use of social networks is included. One item requests information on which social networks the teachers use (X, Facebook, Pinterest, Instagram, LinkedIn) and how frequently. In addition, teachers are asked which social network they use the most and the reasons that lead them to choose that network. Two items are also included to determine since when they have used that network and how they began to use it (on the recommendation of a colleague/friend, on their own initiative, after participating in a training session/workshop/conference/event, or for another reason).

We also asked the teachers to indicate the names or profiles of the five people they follow on social networks who are most important for their work as teachers, and to explain the reasons why they follow these profiles. To conclude this part of the questionnaire related to the use of social networks, we included two items. The first collects information on how frequently (several times a day; at least once a day; a few days per week; a few days during the month; or very rarely) and for what purposes they use social networks (to write or share their own content; to reply to tweets from people they follow; to retweet others’ tweets; to mention people they follow; or to send direct messages).

Alongside the previous items, we designed a Likert-type scale composed of 24 items, intended to probe more deeply into the reasons why teachers use social networks. For the ad hoc design of the scale, we drew on the works of ^{Staudt Willet (2019}), ^{Nochumson (2018}, 2020), and ^{Higueras-Rodríguez et al. (2020}), who investigated the reasons teachers use X. We also incorpo- rated findings from ^{Gilbert (2016}), ^{Greenhow and Askari (2017}), and Li et al. (2021), which analysed teachers’ learning processes through social networks. From these studies, we identified the following dimensions that served to develop the items of the scale:

The questionnaire allowed us to gather information on the reasons for using social networks, as well as the level of use by teachers in Spain and Uruguay.¹ In a second part of this research, we sought to delve further into who the individuals recognized as reference figures or influencers in the field of education are and how they operate. To select the most important reference figures in each country, we adopted two procedures. These differentiated procedures must be justified by the fact that, whereas in Spain we had relevant information from the results of previous studies conducted by one of the authors of this article, in Uruguay there was no valid information on which to proceed with the interviews.

In the case of Spain, we interviewed 18 teachers with a strong presence on social networks and based our work on the study previously developed by ^{Marcelo and Marcelo-Martínez (2021}). In that study, we used the Buzzsumo software, a marketing analysis tool that enables advanced searches on the people, profiles, and topics most consumed and shared on social networks. We began by filtering users by country (Spain) and by keywords present both in the user’s biography and in their posts. From this analysis, we obtained a sample of 64 Spanish profiles, from which we initially selected the 10 most representative. We considered as prominent influencers those who had more than 15,000 followers and more than 5,000 tweets published. After identifying the most prominent Spanish influencers, we analysed the mentions made by each of them in their tweets.

We were interested in discovering who the individuals were that these teachers regarded as relevant, since they were indicated in their mentions. The analysis of the mentions revealed different types of profiles on X: individuals, institutions (government, agencies, official centres), politicians (ministers), national and educational press, radio, television, music, or universities. We selected only the mentions referring to individuals. Once we compiled the list of subjects mentioned by these 10 influencers, we established as a criterion that they had to be mentioned by at least 4 of the influencers in our sample. This process enabled us to identify a total of 44 new influencers. Added to the initial 10, these constitute the total sample of 54 subjects studied, as can be seen in the Figure 1. We used social network analysis to identify the degrees of centrality and betweenness of these influencers. Twenty-eight individuals with different degrees of cen- trality were identified and invited to participate in the research through an interview.

Source: Authors’ elaboration.

Figure 1 Representation of groups of influencers in the field of education in Spain 

In the case of Uruguay, taking into account that we had little prior information, we started from the results of the questionnaire described above, in which teachers were asked to identify individuals they considered reference figures on social networks. In a second stage, the list of these reference figures was processed with the Graphtext software in search of patterns and trends to analyse their influence on social networks and to study the structure and dynamics of connections among users. This program enables interactive network visualisation and provides the tools required to generate dynamic and hierarchical graphs.

Although Facebook and Instagram are the most used social networks in Uruguay, we decided to conduct the social network analysis (SNA) on X, since, according to ^{Luo et al. (2020}), this is the main platform for creating professional learning networks and sharing knowledge. The SNA on X made it possible to visualise the centrality degree and betweenness centrality of the vertices in the network. For this social network analysis process, we examined the mentions that each of the 20 most frequently named reference figures in the interviews made in their X messages. For this purpose, we used data from the tweets of the 20 profiles. Once these data were downloaded, we proceeded to extract the mentions made. This frequency count generated an adjacency matrix that showed the number of times each influencer mentioned and was mentioned by each of the remaining 19 influencers. It is worth noting that, in this case, we found some influencers who mentioned themselves.

Once the adjacency matrix had been created, we used the Graphtext program to analyse the relationships among the influencers, as can be seen in the Figure 2. From this analysis emerged a list of nine reference figures linked to the educational field, who were invited to take part in the study through an in-depth interview. Data from the nine reference figures were collected by means of semi-structured interviews. The development of the interview guide was based on the conceptualisation of ^{Walter and Brüggemann (2020}). The authors examine how reference figures operate, since they not only redistribute information but also produce their own content, either because they create it or because they obtain first-hand information by virtue of their position on X.

Source: Authors’ elaboration.

Figure 2 Representation of groups of influencers in the field of education in Uruguay 

In both cases (Uruguay and Spain), the researchers had a question guide aimed at collecting varied information about the interviewees’ participation on social networks, their entry into these platforms (with a focus on X), the topics of their interest, and the process they follow to make a post. The interviews made it possible to analyze the ways in which influential teachers related to their followers and the possible learning generated through social networks.

Results

The data obtained were analyzed, first, by means of descriptive statistics with measures of central tendency and variability. In addition, nonparametric contrasts were performed to analyze differences in the use of social networks among teachers as a function of factors such as sex, age, and the educational level at which they teach.

Subsequently, with regard to the scale on reasons for teachers’ use of social networks, we carried out a classical reliability analysis, an initial exploratory factor analysis, and a principal components analysis using the JASP software, version 0.11.1.0. To determine the reliability of the scale, we obtained Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.957 and examined what happened to the coefficients if each item was deleted, which allowed us to verify that reliability did not change when any item was removed. We also extracted the correlation of each item with the remaining items. For the exploratory factor analysis and the principal components analysis, we used orthogonal varimax rotation. Once an exploratory model consisting of two factors had been defined, we proceeded to confirmatory factor analysis. We obtained additional parameters, such as root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and goodness of fit index (GFI), to determine the quality of fit of the confirmed model.

Discussion and conclusions

In this article, we observed that new digital learning environments are generating favourable conditions for teachers in Spain and Uruguay to learn and improve their teaching practices (^{Dille & Røkenes, 2021}). The existing literature on professional uses of digital social networks by teachers indicates variation in frequency, intensity, and motivations (^{Owen et al., 2016}; ^{Xing & Gao, 2018}). This finding is consistent with our results. The percentage of surveyed teachers who report regularly using one of the three main social networks (X, Facebook, or Instagram) is considerable (around 30%; 25% use them occasionally).

What drives Uruguayan and Spanish teachers to participate in social networks? Our study reveals many similarities between the two groups. Two main factors motivate the use of these platforms: seeking high-quality resources and materials for teaching practice, and creating spaces of affinity, collaboration, and support. The highestscoring motives are similar in both countries: finding educational resources made available by other colleagues; applying new ideas or methods learned on these networks in their classes; learning about topics in which they have less command; and reflecting on their own practice.

The least mentioned motives include feeling in contact with other teachers and sharing one’s own emotions and concerns. Only two aspects showed significant differences between Uruguayan and Spanish respondents: collaborating on shared projects with other colleagues and participating in open, online training seminars and activities. In both instances, scores are higher among Uruguayan teachers. A possible explanation is the presence in Uruguay of Plan Ceibal (mentioned earlier), which for nearly two decades has promoted virtual learning environments to create and share resources in professional learning communities. The plan has also encouraged participation in numerous online training activities (^{Vaillant et al., 2022}).

According to the results presented here, participation in online social spaces is increasing and is emerging as a catalyst for professional development. Through the networks, teachers establish contact with colleagues, share experiences, resources, and knowledge, or address specific aspects of teaching practice (^{Kamalodeen & Jameson-Charles, 2016}). They exchange teaching-related knowledge (^{Ab Rashid et al., 2016}) and generate new understandings, ideas, and practices that they take into their classrooms, demonstrating that social networks may contribute to professional development (^{Goodyear et al., 2019}). Their use of social networks underscores that, in an interconnected society such as ours, autonomous learning prevails over more traditional forms of professional development (^{Kennedy, 2019}). As confirmed in this study, Spanish and Uruguayan teachers recognise and make use of the learning opportunities offered by social networks, which rest on more flexible forms of interaction (^{Rehm & Notten, 2016}) and on immediate communication with peers. This communication focuses mainly on the most didactic and practical aspects of their teaching work.

Moreover, we found that social networks have facilitated the creation of affinity spaces among the teaching staff. They appear to allow many teachers to move beyond the institutionalised conservatism noted by ^{Fullan and Hargreaves (2012}), who highlighted the difficulty of asking for help because of the negative perception attached to acknowledging weaknesses in one’s immediate environment - something at odds with the professional culture of teaching. In contrast, social networks generate affinity spaces that provide security and confidence for requesting assistance (^{Gee, 2005}). Developing in parallel to the physical setting of the school, these spaces enable teachers to sustain trusting and respectful relationships with colleagues with whom they feel affinity, regardless of geographical proximity. Teachers themselves choose whom to follow and with whom to interact.

Within the freedom and range of options offered by networks, new informal leaderships are emerging among teachers (^{Liou & Daly, 2018}). These horizontal leaderships rest on trust, recognition, and mutual appreciation, grounded in the practical usefulness of shared instructional materials, proposals, and ideas. In recent years, some teachers have stood out as reference figures in social networks (^{Marcelo & Marcelo-Martínez, 2023}; ^{Carpenter et al., 2023}). These opinion leaders are consulted by others seeking inspiration or support (Daly et al., 2019; ^{Del Fresno García et al., 2016}). Their capacity to influence the community derives from their acceptance and media relevance (Del-Fresno García et al., 2016). Recognised by their community, they play a crucial role by facilitating the flow of information across the network and creating opportunities for teachers to develop learning through shared ideas, experiences, and reflections (^{Greenhalgh et al., 2016}).

As the results of this study show, teachers appreciate the role of these reference figures as curators of up-to-date, useful content for teaching work, which motivates them to assume a more active role on social networks. The influence of these leaders holds substantial weight for followers, who adopt a favourable stance that leads them to move beyond mere information consumption and become active participants. This stance arises from an altruistic intention and a sense of responsibility toward knowledge building in the networks. Through their interaction online, these teachers have understood that the worth of this medium lies in sharing practices and experiences, including those that were not successful.

Some teachers who took part in this research display moderate activity on social networks, corresponding to the profiles ^{Baker-Doyle (2017}) labels “emergent” and “participatory.” In that work, a four-level continuum is proposed, which teachers progressively traverse as participation and interaction increase in digital environments. Those with an “emergent” profile seek colleagues’ advice when needed and recognise the advantage of connecting with others to advance their learning. They do not isolate themselves or fear asking specialists for help, viewing social environments as a complementary source of knowledge and learning alongside formal sources. Teachers with a “participatory” profile, in addition to the foregoing, use social networks to initiate conversations and debates with other professionals. They move beyond spectatorship to contribute their practices and share them publicly, using these platforms not only to communicate but also to interact and learn with others. This enables them to take a critical stance toward the learning materials they develop and to transform their teaching practice, adapting and designing materials for their students based on what they learn in the networks. As reflected in this study’s results, integration of social networks into professional development also follows different levels or evolutionary stages (Baker-Doyle, 2017).

The teaching profession has traditionally oscillated between discourses of control, accountability, and standards, and others centred on activism, professional awareness, decision-making, and teacher autonomy (^{Ben-Peretz, 2012}). Based on what is presented in this article, digital social networks are facilitating the consolidation of a new type of professionalism. On one side, a collaborative professionalism characterised by rethinking and renewing teaching practices through reflective, self-directed learning and collaboration among teachers via networks. On the other, an activist professionalism that seeks to transform educational practices through the generation of new knowledge via research and collaborative learning (^{Sachs, 2016}). Both forms were identified in this study.

Our focus was on understanding the motivations that lead teachers to use social networks, but we did not examine the reasons why many choose not to. They may distrust the lack of privacy, or the environment created by social networks (public exposure, immediacy of communication) may discourage participation (^{Baruch & Hershkovitz, 2014}). This hypothesis aligns with ^{Lortie’s (1975}) proposal that the teaching profession develops in settings that foster isolation. Some teachers might prefer not to expose their practices, resources, or activities publicly to avoid being judged (^{Snow-Gerono, 2005}).

Another aspect that warrants investigation is the quality of the information and digital resources shared online. Although it may be assumed that teachers apply clear criteria to evaluate what they find - adopting a resource or methodological procedure according to its coherence with their teaching style - it is also possible that some adopt resources without having developed the professional judgement typical of an experienced teacher (^{Kelly et al., 2021}). A deeper study of resource quality and the criteria of use applied by teachers is therefore necessary.

This leads to a third reflection: the extent to which educational resources gathered on social networks are applied in classrooms. It is crucial to analyse the learning transfer carried out by teachers and, importantly, the learning outcomes these resources generate in students (^{Fauth & González-Martínez, 2021}).

The study presented here permits the formulation of hypotheses about complementarity between teachers who use various platforms and educational reference figures who publish systematically on social networks. Future research could deepen the analysis of this complementarity to understand, for example, how contributions by educational reference figures on social networks affect teaching practices and student learning outcomes. Studies could also identify not only the benefits of this complementarity but also possible risks, such as the spread of unverified information or excessive dependence on certain platforms or influencers in the educational field. Another line of inquiry concerns whether social networks create opportunities to strengthen emotional bonds among teachers, assessing contextual aspects of the teachers themselves in the institutions where they teach.