Procedures

The document analysis was based on the conception of ^{Lüdke and André (2022}, p. 45), in which the aim is "to identify factual information in documents based on questions or hypotheses of interest." Once this methodological procedure was adopted, the following stages were carried out: characterization of the type of document; data analysis itself; form of data recording; creation of categories; and system enhancement.

Firstly, the document analysis focused on the BNCC, which is characterized as an official, public, and technical document aimed at guiding schools in Brazil in the development of their Political-Pedagogical Projects, the construction of subject area curricula, and the implementation of pedagogical practices for curricular components (Brasil, 2018; ^{Lüdke & André, 2022}).

For the data study, content analysis—both categorical and semantic—was employed (^{Bardin, 2016}). This methodological approach consists of a set of techniques for analyzing communications (Bardin, 2016), through which the researcher goes through three stages: pre-analysis, material exploration, and treatment of results, inference, and interpretation. Specifically, in semantic categorical analysis, the researcher directs their attention to the intended meaning of the content present in the objects of investigation. In order to substantiate the data generated and minimize possible biases, this analysis was guided by important criteria such as: mutual exclusion, homogeneity, relevance, objectivity, and productivity (Bardin, 2016).

The recording method of this document analysis considered specific sections of the document that were coherent with the object of study. Sections corresponding to the general aspects that support and guide the document—such as its preface, introduction, the pedagogical foundations of the BNCC (pages 5 to 14), and the stage of Early Childhood Education (pages 35 to 56)—were analyzed, along with the general sections of Elementary Education and the Area of Languages (pages 57 to 66), specific sections on Physical Education (pages 213 to 239), and Secondary Education (pages 461 to 497). All of these sections were evaluated from the perspective of Physical Education and body image.

The characterization of this document, as well as the selection of the analyzed sections, resulted from an extensive and exhaustive reading of the BNCC, with the aim of identifying potential content related to the theme of this research (^{Lüdke & André, 2022}). Since the focus is on the intersections between body image, Physical Education, and the BNCC, issues related to other areas of knowledge were not considered relevant, as they were developed based on different theoretical frameworks, authors, objectives, and specific fields of action.

Regarding the method of data recording, the excerpts resulting from the analysis were compiled to synthesize the emerging data (^{Lüdke & André, 2022}). Initially, 89 excerpts were selected, but 14 of them did not correspond directly to the objectives of this research and were therefore excluded. These excerpts addressed issues related to the possibilities for teachers to approach topics based on the specific school context in which they work.

After exhaustive readings of the specific sections of the BNCC listed in this study, 75 excerpts were selected, of which nine are from the presentation, introduction, and structure of the BNCC; 14 are from Early Childhood Education; 36 from Elementary Education; and 16 from Secondary Education. The selection of excerpts for analysis was based on the chosen sections, aiming to identify interfaces between body image and Physical Education, how these occur, and from which perspective.

In document analyses, arbitrary choices are appropriate, as the objective is to speculate about the ideologies, intentions, and values of the authors of the document (^{Lüdke & André, 2022}). The analysis resulting from such choices must be examined and considered as a new perspective that adds to other analyses of the document (Lüdke & André, 2022).

The creation of categories is the outcome of repeated and systematized readings of the document, which allow for their formulation based on recurring themes or their relevance (^{Lüdke & André, 2022}). It is common for the initial formulation of categories to be grounded in the theoretical frameworks supporting the research, and, throughout the process, to be modified based on new insights derived from the observed reality (Lüdke & André, 2022).

Following the creation of categories, the next stage consisted of system enrichment, in which the researchers dedicated themselves to deepening, expanding, and linking the analysis (^{Lüdke & André, 2022}). Deepening consists of a renewed attempt to analyze the document and uncover new perspectives, increasing understanding and enhancing the analytical scope. Expansion of the field of knowledge involves identifying emerging aspects that require further development. Lastly, linking is the procedure of seeking associations among elements within the material, with the goal of organizing and assigning them to the appropriate categories (Lüdke & André, 2022).

Presentation, Introduction, and Structure of the BNCC

Source: Author’s own elaboration (2023). Note: BNCC = National Common Curricular Base; p. = page.

Box 1 Comparison between the BNCC excerpt (presentation, introduction, and structure) and the body image literature 

In the presentation, introduction, and structure of the BNCC, two general competencies of Basic Education are identified that engage with the theme of body image. First, competency number five relates to anticipated outcomes of pedagogical practice in media literacy. Subsequently, competency number eight encompasses body image theory and positive body image.

Media literacy, whether traditional media or social media, is a potential pedagogical practice within body image education that aims the promotion of a reflective use and production of media. This approach can serve as a protective measure against negative body image, as a tool for raising awareness about who the creator/emitter of the content is, the target audience, and the intended objective. Additionally, it addresses values, perspectives, and behaviors generated or impacted by certain attitudes. Finally, it encourages reflection on the extent to which the disseminated information is credible (^{Paxton, Mclean, & Rodgers, 2022}). The BNCC reveals a certain concern with the use of digital technologies in general, as can be seen in the excerpt cited above. These and other references presented in this article may foster the development of children and adolescents who are attentive to the consumption and critical use of media in general.

Although indirect, superficial, and mild, two body image theories are present in general competency number eight. The theories of body image and positive body image are addressed insofar as this competency refers to the act of knowing oneself, appreciating oneself, and taking care of oneself. Merleau-Ponty (2018) postulates that the body enables the centrality of human existence. Through perceptual experiences, the body animates the latent horizon and expresses itself through body image. According to ^{Tavares (2003}, p. 83), an important aspect to consider regarding body image is the individual’s connection with the body.

For the body to appear as an image in our mind, it is necessary that it exists for ourselves as a concrete, meaningful object that impacts us and stands out among the many other objects that present themselves to the individual, producing images.

For this to occur, bodily experiences allow the subject to engage meaningfully with the environment, in order to (re)signify the self (^{Gattario et al., 2020}; ^{Merleau-Ponty, 2018}). Thus, the individual comes to know oneself and the world as they live within it, developing a well-established body image. This “perceptual experience of the body’s engagement with the world” (^{Merleau-Ponty, 2018}), also referred to as corporeity, can occur positively in Physical Education classes, provided that the bodily experiences offered are planned and sensitive to this objective, thereby fostering aspects of positive body image.

Regarding positive body image, it refers to body appreciation, the most researched theme within the field of positive body image. This theory is especially important because it has been identified as a suppressor of body dissatisfaction and a predictor of positive body image (^{Linardon et al., 2021}). Defined as behaviors of valuing and respecting one’s own body and rejecting appearance ideals (^{Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015}), constructs associated with positive body image encourage the individual to understand their abilities and flaws and to love themselves (^{Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015}).

Thus, it is possible to identify a subtle alignment between two general competencies of Education and body image theories. Both media literacy and body appreciation are important constructs for the school environment. Once present in the general competencies of Education, it is expected that throughout the BNCC both will be reinforced in the guidelines and objectives of each educational stage, beginning with Early Childhood Education, as presented in Box 2.

Early Childhood Education

Source: Author’s own elaboration (2023). Note: BNCC = National Common Curricular Base; p. = page.

Box 2 Comparison between the BNCC excerpt on Early Childhood Education and the body image literature 

Box 2 continuation 

Within the set of excerpts selected for analysis, Early Childhood Education is exclusively related to the importance of bodily experiences in child development. Excerpts emerged corresponding to the process of body image development, positive body image, personal identity development, the role of the teacher, and the singularization of the bodily self.

Through play and experimentation, culture emerges as one of the aspects to be promoted in the “Learning and Development Rights in Early Childhood Education” and in the “Fields of Experience,” both closely linked to Physical Education and body image. This assertion can be seen in the following excerpt:

To know oneself and construct one’s personal, social, and cultural identity, building a positive image of oneself and one’s groups of belonging through diverse experiences of care, interactions, play, and languages experienced in the school institution and its family and community context (Brasil, 2018, p. 38, emphasis in original).

According to ^{Mello et al. (2016}), the BNCC, by emphasizing the body and bodily experiences through play and games, positions the Physical Education teacher as a central figure, facilitating, mediating, and promoting specific knowledge in these areas. Another excerpt that highlights this statement can be seen in:

Body, gestures, and movements - With the body (through the senses, gestures, impulsive or intentional movements, coordinated or spontaneous), children, from an early age, explore the world, space, and objects around them, establish relationships, express themselves, play, and produce knowledge about themselves, others, and the social and cultural universe, progressively becoming aware of this corporeity. (Brasil, 2018, p. 40, emphasis in original).

It is important to highlight that, in the excerpt above, the BNCC falls short by reinforcing a technicist perspective that conceptualizes learning and development as linear and progressive processes. However, as noted in the first observation, the construction of self-knowledge is part of a lifelong process that unfolds in a dynamic and often inconsistent manner (^{Tavares, 2003}; ^{Tavares, 2007}).

“The construction of meanings about the self” (^{Brasil, 2018}, p. 37, translation by the authors) happens through significant bodily experiences that allow the creation of references about one’s own body through bodily sensations (^{Tavares, 2003}, translation by the authors). Specifically, in Early Childhood Education, bodily experiences are of central importance for development (^{Cash & Smolak, 2011}). Children between 4 and 6 years already demonstrate comparisons between themselves and others (^{Smolak, 2012}).

In the second excerpt, more than simply “knowing oneself,” the document points to the construction of personal identity. The construction of human identity (or bodily identity) is closely linked to the development of body image (^{Tavares, 2003}). Since body image is an imagetic representation of the subject, it is rich in values, concepts, characteristics, histories, and experiences inherent to one’s identity, and therefore related to the subjective expression of the self. When proposing to seek the interface also with Physical Education, it is appropriate to highlight that it is through movement that our deepest subjectivities can be expressed and allow the subject’s connection with their own representation, that is, their bodily identity (^{Tavares, 2003}).

The process of constructing a “positive self-image” (^{Brasil, 2018}, p. 38, translation by the authors) aligns with the previous paragraph, insofar as bodily experiences occur in ways that provide sensations connected to the individual's identity (^{Tavares, 2003}). In this sense, the role of the teacher, particularly the Physical Education teacher, even though this is not yet a widespread reality in Early Childhood Education—is essential for creating environments conducive to positive bodily experiences (^{Neves, Hirata, & Tavares, 2015}).

In this developmental process from early childhood, body image can be positive and/or negative (^{Siegel, Winter, & Cook, 2021}). The literature shows that children as young as 3 years old may already exhibit weight stigma attitudes (^{Damiano et al., 2020}; ^{Harriger et al., 2019}) and compare their bodies with those of their peers (^{Smolak, 2012}). By age 5, they demonstrate internalized thin-ideal preferences (^{Tatangelo et al., 2016}). Furthermore, parents, peers, media, and other significant individuals are important factors influencing how the child perceives themselves (^{Schaefer et al., 2017}). Despite this, both parents and teachers show resistance and difficulties in addressing the topic (^{Russel-Mayhew et al., 2015}; ^{Siegel, Winter, & Cook, 2021}).

Therefore, on page 40 of the BNCC, when describing the field of experience “The self, the other, and us,” the document presents the process of bodily identity development in a limited manner. This field of experience establishes a series of Cartesian causal relationships in the text without critical discussion of how, for example, children’s experiences may fail to generate self-identification and, consequently, distorted self-representations and/or perceptions that do not provoke positive/healthy modes of behavior, feeling, and thinking toward themselves. The limited way in which the document addresses this theme may have consequences for teaching practice and, thus, for the formation of children at this stage of Basic Education.

In this sense, to increase the possibilities for social context to facilitate the development of positive body image, several aspects must be considered. These aspects encompass teacher training and practice, school culture focused on body image, training and support of caregivers, media literacy, among others (^{Huguenin et al., 2024}). According to ^{Siegel, Winter, and Cook (2021}), processes are necessary to remove appearance-focused cultures and weight stigmas and to encourage skills and appreciation of abilities.

Unlike the previous category, in Early Childhood Education, learning and development objectives were presented. In the field of experience “The self, the other, and us,” three objectives showed synergy with body image, all reinforcing aspects already mentioned: recognizing one’s own body, perceiving the different possibilities of existence, and valuing one’s own body characteristics. In Elementary School, however, some particularities need to be considered, as shown in Box 3.

Elementary School

Source: Authors (2023). Note: BNCC = National Common Curricular Base; p. = page

Box 3 Comparison of the excerpt from the BNCC for Elementary School - body image literature 

Box 3 continuation 

At this stage of Basic Education, children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 14 are included, that is, individuals at different stages of development. Regarding children, studies have shown that this population may exhibit body dissatisfaction and other aspects of negative body image (^{Nichols et al., 2018}; ^{Swami; Punshon; Paul, 2022}). The adolescent population is considered at risk in terms of body image due to new social insertions and the sense of needing to belong to a group, significant hormonal changes, and bodily changes (^{Miranda et al., 2014}).

In this context, significant changes may occur in the body image of these adolescents. This is especially true for girls, since the changes resulting from this phase of biological maturation may distance them from the socially imposed beauty ideal and generate aspects of negative body image (^{Miranda et al., 2014}). Considering that this is a Western society—where weight stigma and internalized ideals of bodily size are present—such bodily changes may give rise to various forms of violence focused on the body (^{Li; Rukavina; Wright, 2012}; ^{Schlüter; Kraag; Schmidt, 2021}). Currently, different forms of violence aimed at the body are known, such as body shaming, cyberbullying, trolling, and teasing, each with its own characteristics and means of operation (Schlüter; Kraag; Schmidt, 2021). In the study by Li, Rukavina, and Wright (2012), several coping mechanisms were identified that adolescents use in response to weight-related teasing, including avoidance, confrontation, self-protection, weight loss, compensation, and stress reduction, among others.

In the area of Languages, there is a passage that indirectly establishes an interface between body image, the BNCC, and Physical Education. On page 65, in the specific competencies for the area of Languages, it is made explicit how Languages are understood. As an “expression of subjectivities and social and cultural identities” (Brasil, 2018, p. 65), bodily practices are rich forms of communication, full of meaning about the sender, the world, and the sender-world relationship (Le Breton, 2012; Merleau-Ponty, 2018). Moreover, as the subject develops their body image (and consequently their identity), they transform their worldview, and in this relation, each mutually modifies the other.

Once again, the strategy, understanding, and use of digital technologies emerged as a point of emphasis in the BNCC. According to ^{Paxton, McLean, and Rodgers (2022}), it is already well established that both traditional and social media hold significant influencing power. In the study by ^{Burnette, Kwitowski, and Mazzeo (2017}), adolescents demonstrated that having critical awareness regarding images disseminated on social media (modified and artificial images) served as a protective factor against body dissatisfaction. A similar study conducted with adolescents aged 12 to 14 also mitigated the impacts associated with negative body image by raising awareness about the intentions behind the information conveyed through media (^{Mahon & Hevey, 2021}).

Specifically in the area of Physical Education, important excerpts emerged for the discussion of new issues. Within this curricular component, it was possible to perceive the suggestion of body awareness gymnastics as a pedagogical approach to the image of one’s own body. Also identified, in the specific competencies of this component, was a subtle dialogue with the sociocultural theory of body image. Likewise, the use of martial arts stood out as a means to address possible existing body stereotypes in this and other modalities. Finally, within this category, the problematization of one of the possible consequences of negative body image emerged, namely body dysmorphic disorder.

One of the body awareness gymnastics practices well established in the literature as a pedagogical practice with body image outcomes is Yoga. This practice consists of postural activities that combine physical postures with breathing and meditation, thus focusing on promoting a unified view of the self (^{Cox et al., 2017}; ^{Halliwell et al., 2016}). This view tends to be positive, since mindfulness and self-compassion are stimulated throughout the activity (Cox et al., 2017). In Cox et al.’s (2017) study, 20 adolescent students reported significant improvements in body image, developed a less objectified view of the body, and showed better indices of body appreciation.

The sociocultural theory of body image is dedicated to understanding human behavior based on cultural influences (^{Cash; Pruzinsky, 2002}), which establish important values in understanding how a person perceives others, oneself, and the living context. These values are internalized, disseminated, and perpetuated mainly through three agents: parents, peers, and media. ^{Thompson et al.’s (1999}) tripartite theory is widely accepted in the literature, and it is well known that the school environment can potentiate the establishment of beauty ideals. Western societies, generally speaking, have beauty ideals characterized by thin bodies for women and muscular bodies for men (^{Dondzilo et al., 2019}; ^{Roberts et al., 2022}; ^{Siegel; Winter; Cook, 2021}). These standards are frequently considered unattainable, and in attempting to conform to such impositions, children and adolescents may become frustrated and develop aspects of negative body image. Therefore, it is essential that students be capable of “identifying the multiplicity of patterns of performance, health, beauty, and bodily aesthetics, critically analyzing the models disseminated in the media, and discussing consumerist and prejudiced postures” (Brasil, 2018, p. 223). Recognizing that different forms of existence exist in society while simultaneously critically analyzing the role of the media in attempting to impose a standard body associated with beauty is fundamental for students’ own understanding of themselves.

Following this discussion, the sociocultural theory of body image describes aspects of negative body image. Through four social agents (important in influencing the individual’s body image), there are two mechanisms that lead to body dissatisfaction: one is social comparison and the other is the internalization of the beauty ideal. Once dissatisfied with themselves, children and adolescents are more likely to adopt unhealthy body modification strategies. One of these strategies can culminate in body dysmorphic disorder, which consists of excessive physical exercise, unhealthy eating, and even the use of medications and anabolic steroids for bodily modifications. The problematization of this disorder is presented in the BNCC in the 9th grade of Elementary School as a competency: “Problematize the excessive practice of physical exercise and the use of medications for enhancing performance or potentiating bodily transformations” (^{Brasil, 2018}, p. 237, emphasis ours).

It is necessary to consider that the BNCC’s recognition of these practices enables Physical Education teachers to include body image in their planning. Body image is well established in the literature as a construct necessary for public health throughout life (^{Bornioli et al., 2019}; ^{Guest et al., 2022}; ^{Lewis-Smith et al., 2023}). However, this construct should not be mentioned solely because it involves processes of health and illness; the heuristic perception of body image allows for understanding the process of human recognition integrally, of constructing identity, promoting well-being and unity (^{Guest et al., 2022}).

In this sense, the theme of body image, timidly and possibly covertly, emerges in the specific Physical Education section, which represents yet another fragility of a document that is not attentive to this matter. In its timid presence, body image in the BNCC seems to aim at students’ identification and discussion of beauty standards rather than the promotion of positive body image among students. Aligning with this perspective, Box 4 shows that the final stage of Basic Education presents similarities with Elementary School.

High School

Source: Authors (2023). Note: BNCC = National Common Curricular Base; p. = page

Box 4 Comparison of the BNCC excerpt from High School - literature on body image 

Box 4 continuation 

The final category corresponds to the last curricular stage of the BNCC, which is High School. Among the highlighted excerpts, emphasis was placed on those containing content similar to the previously mentioned ones. The BNCC brings forth the need for students at this stage to know themselves, combat stereotypes, recognize their bodily potentialities and limits, use bodily practices as a means of expressing values and identities, and be critically aware of the existing prejudices, stereotypes, and power relations that are perpetuated through symbolic or structural violence.

Still during adolescence, one of the purposes of High School is to lead the student to "know themselves and better deal with their body, feelings, emotions, and interpersonal relationships, asserting self-respect and respecting others" (Brasil, 2018, p. 466). In the ongoing trajectory of construction and deconstruction of body image, the process of self-knowledge may occur insofar as the adolescent is developing positive relationships with themselves, with the world, and with others. ^{Schilder (1981}) postulates that although body image is singular and individual, it is immersed in a context of interrelations of body images (those of others) within an environment in which perceptions are particular.

Combating bodily stereotypes and discriminations aligns with the considerations made in Elementary Education. In High School, these factors are perceived as means of power relations, in which students should: "Critically analyze prejudices, stereotypes, and power relations present in bodily practices, adopting a stance against any manifestation of injustice and disrespect to human rights and democratic values" (Brasil, 2018, p. 495, emphasis in the original).

From the perspective of the post-critical view of the Physical Education curriculum, there are power relations in bodily practices in multiple ways. The perpetuation of stereotypes and prejudices, both regarding bodily practices and bodies themselves, leads to exclusion, segregation, and marginalization of other modes of existence (^{Neira, 2018b}).

In summary, the final stage of Basic Education presents, to a certain extent, important contradictions to be considered. Although one of the stated purposes of this stage emphasizes the importance of better understanding oneself, High School reduces the Physical Education curricular component to just one more skill within the Languages and Their Technologies area. Still within this perspective, combating stereotypes and asymmetrical power relations in bodily practices and adopting self-care attitudes and the expression of values and identity presupposes a prominence of Physical Education that transcends a mere skill. Moreover, this knowledge is inherent to students’ body image, especially in educational contexts where these aspects are addressed through the body and movement.

This study presents at least three limitations worth mentioning. Given the length of the document, our analysis may not have covered it entirely, meaning that sensitive aspects related to the target theme of this study may not have been considered. Therefore, new research aiming to documentarily analyze the intersections between body image, Physical Education, and the BNCC is necessary.

Similarly, the absence of studies in the literature that address body image in School Physical Education is noted as a limitation. This claim is substantiated by the fact that few studies—such as experience reports, pedagogical actions, and reviews—were found to establish a discussion with the findings of this research.

Another limitation concerns the methodological procedures adopted in this study. The fact that the content analysis was conducted solely by the first author may represent a weakness of the study. Therefore, it is suggested that future research considers performing the procedural aspects under double-blind conditions in order to ensure the accuracy of the results.