Research and analysis of the material

A search in the databases Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), PePSIC, Index Psi, LILACS, PsycINFO – of the American Psychological Association (APA) –, BDTD, and Capes platform was performed, using the search string “flow theory” AND “education” OR “flow theory” AND “learning” OR “flow theory” AND “psychology”. The descriptors and boolean operators were established after reading the material that addressed the theme.

Since this study has an interest on knowing how flow theory is used in education and/or learning in Brazil in a wide sense, a time period for the search was not delineated, therefore, avoiding the exclusion of articles relevant to this review. To understand the scale of the scientific literature on flow theory in education, we started from the following research question: how is flow theory being used in the Brazilian educational and/or learning scenario? We intend to understand how this relationship occurs, what educational approaches use this theory, and what are the future perspectives of this field (Table 1).

To meet the inclusion criteria of this review, the studies had to present flow theory as the main theme or theoretical approach, be associated with the educational and/or learning field, be conducted in Brazil, and be fully available for access. The exclusion criteria regarded duplicated studies among the databases, and studies not available for access.

Proposal of a theoretical model to assess internal cohesion of virtual learning communities (CVAs) in higher education

The study of ^{Loureiro (2009)} proposed a model to assess interpersonal cohesion in virtual learning communities (CVAs) of higher education, considering how pedagogical approaches are implemented in these settings to facilitate the learning process. The same theoretical framework used to analyze in-person learning communities was used, with the intent of assessing aspects such as cooperation and interaction, which are characteristic of collective spaces.

To create this model, the author was inspired by concepts and categories of flow theory. The use of the theory to substantiate his evaluation model is justified by the fact that, taking into account the principle that well-being can be produced and experienced in human activity itself and not only through the satisfaction or achievement of a goal, it is possible to improve the quality of education in collective learning environments. Thus, establishing new directions for more effective relationships and interactions among individuals, improving the activities performed, the engagement of individuals involved and the relationships that permeate these settings.

In the study, postmodernity is presented as a factor for various psychosocio-anthropological changes associated with human interaction in all its dimensions. One of these dimensions would be learning communities, in which interactions are modified by aspects such as the environment, with the transition of real environments to virtual platforms (^{LAGUARDIA; PORTELA; VASCONCELLOS, 2007}; ^{LOUREIRO, 2009}). These systems, according to ^{Roberts (2009)}, contribute to the integration of individuals from different social settings for various periods of time, promoting experiences with a unique impact on education.

^{Loureiro (2009)} focuses on e-learning, more specifically higher education e-learning, since it is a setting that uses various types of media. The study perceived the principles of ubiquity, accessibility, and intuitiveness in the virtual setting. However, such principles were achieved from a technological point of view and the same did not occur from a humane point of view. Thus, despite having the structures needed to improve personal relationships, there was no interaction and engagement among individuals during the proposed activities.

The lack of internal cohesion seen in the study of ^{Loureiro (2009)} is justified by the fact that some teachers were not familiar with the use of the internet and did not have a clear methodology, as well as the fact that some students had only been using e-learning for a short period of time and did not engage with the group. The results were different when the study was conducted with individuals who had been using the system for a longer period of time, which corroborates with the evidence found in the literature that states that e-learning requires technological literacy, so that the individual can search for additional material over the internet, install applications, send e-mails and perform other activities (^{PATTO, 2013}; ^{RAMOS et al., 2014}). The absence of such abilities can become a struggle for the student or even the teacher, reducing performance and desire to continue using the environment (^{RAMOS et al., 2014}).

Exergames in networks: Physical Education in cyberspace

This research of Vaghetti was conducted four years after the study of ^{Loureiro (2009)}, which is considered a pioneering study using flow theory in the educational context. ^{Vaghetti (2013)} analyzed the use of a new category of videogames, the exergames, in physical education classes for students of elementary school and higher education. Flow theory and self-determination theory were used as the theoretical framework of the study because the author aimed to identify the motivational elements within the use of these games in physical education classes. All the games presented a sport as the main activity, such as table tennis.

The author noticed that the use of virtual environments such as games induces learning strategies that can be applied to sports practice and physical activities in the real world, promoting them among elementary school and higher education students. It is deemed that game elements exert positive and/or negative influence on gamers, immersing the individuals in the activity, making them experience a high intake of information, an increase in logical thinking, reading capacity, concentration and memory accumulation (^{AVANÇO; LIMA, 2020}; ^{GHENSEV, 2010}).

Since games possess elements that trigger all these benefits, the author states that, when practiced in a network, the exergames promote competition among players and elevate motivation. Hence, in these experiences, a high occurrence of flow state was seen. Thus, mechanisms used within game settings arouse the interest of individuals, leading them to be immersed in the activity and promoting an optimal consciousness experience (^{SCHEEL, 2019}).

The study of ^{Vaghetti (2013)} used flow theory with the objective of boosting learning motivation, such as the study of ^{Loureiro (2009)}. However, the latter did not obtain satisfactory results, differently from ^{Vaghetti (2013)} who, by using game mechanisms, was able to increase the motivation level of participants and, as a consequence, induce a flow state. Such result led the author to realize the importance of providing classrooms with an updated methodology, aligned with the digital era we live in, which can lead to benefits if used correctly in daily activities.

Moreover, the study showcased the relevance of immediate feedback for participants’ game strategies, since it contributed to an increase in motivation with the use of exergames in networked modality, in comparison to multiplayer and singleplayer models. In the networked modality, more players were distributed within the groups, promoting the establishment of more relationships and interaction between individuals through cooperation and competition. Due to these factors, flow experience was more observed in this type of game. Therefore, the results proved the hypothesis that network exergames can be used as social exergames, that is, as a social network for the practice of physical activities. In this manner, even without obtaining the same motivation level in the three game modalities, the author was able to prove his research hypothesis. Thus, validating the use of exergames in physical education.

Gamification of online language teaching

In 2016, another study using a virtual environment in the teaching-learning process was developed, this time by Gerson Bruno Forgiarini de Quadros, encompassing the teaching of foreign languages in online platforms. Flow theory was used as a basis and the study aimed to explain how gamified elements can lead the individual to have a flow experience while learning a foreign language. Since the elaboration of the concept of gamification by ^{Deterding (2011)}, this notion is being used with the intent of improving learning, efficiency and motivation of students (^{KAPP, 2012}). Also, as cited before, the use of game elements can lead individuals to have satisfactory flow experiences. In his work, ^{Quadros (2016)} points out that being in a flow state during the learning process may stimulate better performance, promoting the development of linguistic abilities and, consequently, the acquisition of a new language.

The author states that by measuring flow levels generated during learning activities of a new language, it is possible to improve the student’s performance by promoting the development linguistic abilities with the online activities. Nonetheless, learning depends on the abilities and the difficulty degree of the activities mediated by educational resources made on the internet. These aspects are directly related to what is described by flow theory, since according to Mihaly ^{Csikszentmihalyi (1999)}, profound engagement in a task and the balance between individual abilities and the task’s difficulty are traits that characterize flow experience.

Although ^{Quadros (2016)} counted on flow theory as the core of his reasoning, we noticed that his work did not present the theory itself as the main focus, but rather gamification and how flow state may occur in individuals while using gamified platforms. His work, as well as the work of ^{Vaghetti (2013)}, focused on the element of motivation within flow theory. Upon finishing the work, the author concluded that the use of flow theory for foreign language teaching is effective for promoting students’ interest on learning, stimulating their motivation and improving their participation in the process.

Toward a unified modeling of learner’s growth process and flow theory

In the same year the study of ^{Quadros (2016)} was developed, another work using flow theory was produced by Challco et al. (2016). The study uses the student growth model along with flow theory to develop a computer model that is able to connect these two theories. That is, associate flow theory with the student growth process. This methodology allows identifying an appropriate balance between the individual’s abilities and the challenges proposed according to the student’s development stages. Furthermore, the authors presented a pseudo algorithm that allows learning platforms design customization, which expands the possibility for students to enter flow state and remain in it (CHALLCO et al., 2016).

To integrate student growth process and flow theory, the authors used a model called GMIF, which presents a difficulty scale divided into five points, ranging from easy to very difficult. Considering that to maintain an individual in a flow state it is necessary to focus on each shift of abilities development stage and then increase the difficulty of activities.

As well as showcasing the GMIF, ^{Challco et al. (2016)} present a pseudo algorithm for GMIF scales, which optimizes the process described before. With this it is possible to insert the model in online systems and expand teaching modalities, allowing the creation of GMIFs with different difficulty levels. The pseudo algorithm is defined by the authors as capable of calculating the number of levels that must be distributed in each activity, or rather, in each stage shift of the student.

The model presented by ^{Challco et al. (2016)} beneficiates the teaching-learning process by implementing collaborative teaching systems that promote flow experience, aiding students to achieve educational objectives, developing abilities, and, most importantly, promoting knowledge acquisition. Moreover, the authors propose that in future studies empirical research should be done to assess the model.

Self-efficacy beliefs and flow theory in the practice, teaching and learning of music

The study of ^{Araújo (2013)} presents motivational elements related to the practice and learning of music. For this, the author recurs to a literature review and researches that used both flow theory and self-efficacy theory. The authors searched for works done both nationally and internationally to explain the aspects related to motivation while practicing music. This would aid teachers, researchers and musicians themselves.

To discuss self-efficacy beliefs and music, ^{Araújo (2013)} analyzed the national studies conducted by ^{Cavalcanti (2009)} and ^{Cereser (2011)}. ^{Cavalcanti (2009)} investigated the self-regulation process and autotelic beliefs in instrument practice of students who studied music at a University in Curitiba. ^{Cereser (2011)}, in his turn, elaborated a scale to verify the self-efficacy beliefs of music educators. From the results of these two studies, ^{Araújo (2013)} understood the motivational aspects present within the music teaching-learning process. Considering the importance of self-regulation processes to focus on and manage the study of music in order to consolidate self-efficacy beliefs, there is a link between self-efficacy beliefs increase and the quality of music practice for students and teachers. Furthermore, it is important to reinforce that strengthening teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs helps motivate themselves and their students.

To discuss the use of flow theory, the author examines the international works of ^{Griffin (2008)} and ^{Troum (2008)}. With the use of flow theory as a theoretical foundation, ^{Griffin (2008)} perceived the adaptation of music students’ difficulties to the activity, along with the establishment of clear goals. This significantly favored the learning progress of over half of the students who participated in the study. ^{Troum (2008)} established guidelines and strategies for music teachers to boost their students’ learning with the observation of intrinsic necessities and adaptation to individual practice requirements. The author also points out flow experience elements within music practice, such as intrinsic motivation, the establishment of goals, and concentration.

After analyzing these studies, the author points similarities between the two theories, highlighting their contributions to the music teaching-learning process and self-regulation for teaching and studying music. Still, it is highlighted that the incentive for significant and rewarding musical practices, as well as the importance of subjective cognitive processes, such as attention, concentration, and positive emotions, allow the individual to act based on his subjective and social reality (^{BUENO; COSTA; BUENO, 2013}).

Thus, it is noticed that, despite the reduced scientific Brazilian literature that uses flow theory, the studies that were conducted have an innovative character and use new technologies. For example, the study of ^{Loureiro (2009)}, who used virtual teaching communities to motivate individuals, not obtaining, however, an increase in interpersonal exchanges or changes in the quality of relationships established in the environment. Despite the evolution of pedagogical processes, regarding technological enhancement and availability of material, human change is still of great importance for adhering to these mechanisms. Virtual learning communities depend on the actions of individuals concerning the modus operandi. That is, there is adhesion to the system but there is no interaction or deep bond between the users, which contributed to the low levels of internal cohesion of the virtual community.

^{Vaghetti (2013)} used game elements and strategies to promote individuals’ motivation and, consequently, lead them to a flow state. Thus, what occurred was an implementation of technologies, compared to the study of ^{Loureiro (2009)}, given that Brazilian educational technologies had a higher reach, seen with the use of these technologies by the sample of students from private institutions.

^{Quadros (2016)} presents a study based on motivation, with the use of flow theory and gamified elements, which is an innovative methodology for the national scenario, considering that the term “gamification” was coined by ^{Deterding (2011)}. The study showed satisfactory results, such as those of ^{Vaghetti (2013)}, who shows the positive advances in the use of flow theory linked to motivational elements. The study of ^{Araújo (2013)}, even considering it is a bibliographic review, articulates theoretical processes with the teaching-learning process in the music field. ^{Lastly, Challco et al. (2016)} propose an algorithm able to promote flow stages through individuals’ abilities, which seems to optimize the process sought by other authors in the previous studies.

The studies present various constructs of flow theory. Nevertheless, the main focus lies on motivation (^{ARAÚJO, 2013}; ^{QUADROS, 2016}; ^{VAGHETTI, 2013}), as a strategy to modify the learning process (^{LOUREIRO, 2009}) and balance individuals’ abilities with the challenges proposed in the activities (CHALLCO et al., 2016). Furthermore, the empirical studies conducted in Brazil have well-established methodological frameworks, their research strategies are innovative and of great relevance to the educational and/or learning context. Also, we noticed the authors’ concern to perform studies using flow theory associated with the learning process in order to produce tools that are able to aid Brazilian education. Thus, all studies articulated theory and practice, either in the traditional school environment or in any other setting that involves learning.

In addition, the objective and research questions of this study were answered: flow theory associated with education and/or learning in Brazil is being used to optimize teaching-learning processes, making them increasingly lighter, cultivating motivation, pleasurable moments, promoting cooperation, competition, and participation in educational environments. (Q1) Regarding the methodological aspects, the prevalence of empirical qualitative-quantitative studies was identified; (Q2) The production of scientific literature that uses this theoretical approach in Brazil may be considered as slow, being stagnant since 2016 and presenting the years of 2013 and 2016 as those with the most publications, with two for each year; (Q3) As fields of action of the studies that use flow theory associated with education and/or learning, we identified pedagogy, musical education, physical education, computer engineering, and languages.